Glucagon (1-29), Human, CAS: 16941-32-5

Glucagon (1-29) is a 29-amino acid peptide hormone produced by pancreatic α-cells that raises blood glucose and fatty acid levels in response to declining blood sugar. Through activation of the glucagon receptor (GCGR), it stimulates hepatic glycogen breakdown and gluconeogenesis, releasing glucose into the bloodstream. Acting in opposition to insulin, it helps maintain glucose homeostasis and is widely studied in diabetes, obesity, and metabolic regulation, as well as in the development of GCGR-targeted therapeutics.

For research use only, do not use in humans!

Produced by JPT Peptide Technologies, a leader in custom peptide synthesis and diabetes reagents.

Glucagon (1-29), Human, CAS: 16941-32-5 - Specifications

• Peptide sequence: H-HSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNT-OH
• Amount: 1.0 mg net (AAA)
• Purity: >95% (HPLC-MS)
• Counterion: TFA
• Delivery Format: Freeze-dried in plastic vial
• Chemical formula: C153H225N43O49S
• MW (average): 3482.8
• Application(s): Diabetes research
• Condition(s)/Topic(s): Diabetes
• Standard Delivery Time: 2-5 days
• CAS: 16941-32-5
• SMILES: N[C@@H](CC1=CNC=N1)C(N[C@@H](CO)C(N[C@@H](CCC(N)=O)C(NCC(N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(N[C@@H](CC2=CC=CC=C2)C(N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(N[C@H](C(N[C@@H](CC(O)=O)C(N[C@@H](CC3=CC=C(O)C=C3)C(N[C@@H](CO)C(N[C@H](C(N[C@@H](CC4=CC=C(O)C=C4)C(N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(N[C@@H](CC(O)=O)C(N[C@@H](CO)C(N[C@@H](CCCNC(N)=N)C(N[C@@H](CCCNC(N)=N)C(N[C@@H](C)C(N[C@@H](CCC(N)=O)C(N[C@@H](CC(O)=O)C(N[C@@H](CC5=CC=CC=C5)C(N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(N[C@@H](CCC(N)=O)C(N[C@@H](CC6=CNC7=C6C=CC=C7)C(N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(N[C@@H](CCSC)C(N[C@@H](CC(N)=O)C(N[C@@H]([C@H](O)C)C(O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)CCCCN)=O)=O)=O)=O)CO)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O)=O

Research Areas for Glucagon (1-29), Human, CAS: 16941-32-5

• Diabetes research: Investigated for its central role in glucose homeostasis and insulin counter-regulation, supporting studies on pancreatic α-cell function and impaired glucagon signaling in diabetes.
• Hypoglycemia studies: Used to explore counter-regulatory mechanisms that restore blood glucose levels, including hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis during insulin-induced glucose depletion.
• Obesity and weight management research: Examined for its metabolic effects on energy expenditure, lipid oxidation, and appetite control, often in combination with GLP-1 receptor agonists for dual-hormone therapies.
• Energy and glucose metabolism studies: Applied in metabolic profiling and physiological models to analyze hepatic glucose production, fatty acid mobilization, and overall energy balance.
• Hormonal and metabolic disorder research: Utilized to study endocrine regulation and metabolic dysregulation associated with obesity, diabetes, and glucagon receptor (GCGR) pathway alterations.
• Cardiovascular and hepatic metabolism research: Explored for its influence on cardiac output, liver glycogen storage, and hepatic enzyme regulation, contributing to studies on heart metabolism and liver physiology.
• Neuroendocrine and appetite regulation studies: Investigated for its effects on central appetite pathways and satiety signaling, highlighting glucagon’s role in brain-gut communication and energy intake control.
• Pancreatic α-cell physiology: Studied to understand glucagon biosynthesis, secretion dynamics, and paracrine interactions with β-cells in the pancreatic islets.
• Peptide aggregation and amyloid formation studies: Serves as a model system for understanding amyloid fibril formation and β-sheet assembly, providing insights into peptide stability and protein misfolding mechanisms.
• Peptide formulation and drug development research: Used in analytical and pharmaceutical studies to improve peptide solubility, stability, and delivery, guiding the design of next-generation GCGR-targeted therapeutics.
• Analytical and assay development: Employed as a reference standard in immunoassays and receptor-binding assays to quantify glucagon levels and validate GCGR-related analytical methods.

Limitations of Native Glucagon (1-29)

Native glucagon has inherent limitations that complicate its experimental use. In aqueous environments, it tends to self-assemble into fibrillar aggregates with amyloid-like structure due to hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions between peptide chains that promote β-sheet formation. This aggregation reduces solubility and leads to the formation of viscous, gel-like solutions that are difficult to handle and quantify.

Moreover, these amyloid-type structures can trigger apoptotic signaling pathways and cause cytotoxic effects, ultimately resulting in programmed cell death. To overcome these challenges, structurally modified glucagon analogs have been developed that offer improved solubility, enhanced stability, and greater suitability for biochemical and pharmacological studies.

We also offer modified Glucagon analogs. Visit our website!

Key Concepts

Glucagon (1-29), Human: Mechanism of Action

1. Glucagon (1-29) exerts its biological effects by binding to the glucagon receptor (GCGR), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) primarily expressed in the liver, as well as in adipose tissue and the heart. The binding to GCGR induces a conformational change in the receptor that activates the stimulatory G protein (Gs).
2. Upon activation, Gs stimulates adenylyl cyclase, which catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cyclic AMP (cAMP). Elevated intracellular cAMP levels serve as a secondary messenger that activates protein kinase A (PKA) and other downstream effectors.
3. Activated PKA phosphorylates a range of key metabolic enzymes, including phosphorylase kinase and glycogen phosphorylase, which promote glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis). At the same time, PKA inhibits glycogen synthase and stimulates gluconeogenic enzymes, such as phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), thereby enhancing glucose production (gluconeogenesis) in the liver.
4. These signaling events increase the release of glucose into the bloodstream, restoring normal blood glucose levels during fasting or low-glucose states.
5. In addition to its hepatic effects, glucagon peptide influences lipid metabolism by promoting lipolysis in adipose tissue, thereby providing fatty acids as an alternative energy source.

Overall, Glucagon Peptide acts as a critical counter-regulatory hormone to insulin, maintaining glucose and energy homeostasis through cAMP-mediated signaling and transcriptional control of metabolic pathways.

Structural Features of Native Glucagon (1-29), Human, CAS: 16941-32-5

Native glucagon is a linear peptide consisting of 29 amino acids derived from the proglucagon precursor. It adopts an α-helical conformation in aqueous and membrane-like environments, stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. The N-terminal region is critical for glucagon receptor (GCGR) activation, while the C-terminal segment contributes to receptor binding affinity and peptide stability. This compact single-chain structure enables efficient interaction with GCGR but also makes the peptide prone to aggregation and fibril formation under physiological conditions.

What is Insulin?

Insulin is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by the β-cells of the pancreatic islets. Acting through the insulin receptor (INSR), it regulates carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism by promoting glucose uptake in peripheral tissues and stimulating glycogen synthesis in the liver and muscle.

In parallel, insulin suppresses hepatic gluconeogenesis and lipolysis, thereby lowering blood glucose and maintaining metabolic balance. Acting as the physiological counterpart to glucagon, it plays a central role in glucose homeostasis and is a key focus in studies of diabetes, metabolism, and endocrine signaling.

JPT’s Glucagon Peptides

Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide. Its primary sequence in humans is: NH2-His-Ser-Gln-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Tyr-Ser-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Asp-Ser-Arg-Arg-Ala-Gln-Asp-Phe-Val-Gln-Trp-Leu-Met-Asn-Thr-COOH. Glucagon is a non-steroid peptide hormone produced in the pancreas. Its effect is opposite to that of insulin. Glucagon and insulin regulating blood glucose homeostasis making glucagon a potential target for the therapeutic treatment of diabetes. JPT Peptide Technologies has substantial, long-standing expertise in providing peptides in all formats, scales and modifications to the global scientific community. All our catalog peptides are provided with HPLC-MS analyses to confirm the identity and demonstrate the high quality of our peptides.

• All peptides are made in Germany
• Bulk orders or custom peptide synthesis upon request
• Provision of freeze-dried aliquots for enhanced stability
• Proven track record
• Need the conjugated or modified peptide? Contact us!